My view of this project began with the concept of creating and exploring the necessity and development of the Independent Catholic Movement (ICC). This process drew my interest to a larger scope of a primer on the history of Roman Catholicism and the Catholic family of denominations. The Independent Catholic Church is largely unknown or misunderstood by most people. This work does not attempt to dismiss the past or discredit the Roman Catholic Church (RCC). The ICC was born upon the Roman Catholic Church's shoulders to deepen and serve a broader population.
I am working from a historical, cultural, and critical base. The goal is to produce an introduction to the history and current practices of the Independent Catholic Church in this country. I will focus on a few Independent Catholic Churches in the Sacramento area and other parts of the United States. Good Shepherd Independent Catholic Church in Sacramento and St. Michael’s Independent Catholic in Loomis, California, are part of the United Catholic Church (UCC), A Heritage Old Catholic Church (unicathchurch.org). Grace Trinity Catholic Church online is independent of any jurisdiction.
I explored websites of various non-Vatican Catholic Jurisdictions, including United Catholic Church (UCC) (unicathchurch.org), Ecumenical Catholic Communion (ECC) or “Communion” (https://ecumenical-catholics.org/), the American National Catholic Church (ANCC) (https://www.americannationalcatholicchurch.org/), The National Catholic Church of America (NCCOA) (nccofa.org), and the Reformed Catholic Church (RCC) https://www.reformedcatholic.org/.
I attended the 2022 Convocation of the Catholic Apostolic Church of Antioch in Phoenix, Arizona (www.churchofantioch.org) and the 2022 Catholic Bishops Forum Annual Assembly in St. Luis, Missouri. The Forum invites Bishops from jurisdictions around the United States to meet, share missions, and bring unity to the Independent Catholic Church Movement.
My interest is to learn, understand, and share a short look at the Roman Church's history as it progressed into the Old Catholic Church Movement and then to the ICC movement in America. I want to understand and pass on the similarities and differences between the RCC and the ICC jurisdictions as well as other jurisdiction. I do not want to compare the Independents against the Roman Church but include the Roman Church in the comparisons between the Independent jurisdictions.
We can best understand Catholicism as a family of denominations that include numerous groups who identify as Catholic but are separated from the largest denomination in Christianity, the Roman Catholic Church. How the RCC became an institution was a process that began with the Jesus Followers during the first century and the splinter groups growing throughout history.
Diverse religious factions existing before the birth of Christ and after His death led the Followers of Christ to evolve into pre- and post-Christianity and eventually into the Roman Catholic Church. These early historical perspectives followed the emergence of many Christian and non-Christian ideologies. The initial followers of Christ were Jews. Throughout time, many schisms occurred; the salient separation happened with the internal split between the Jews and the emergent Christian development.
Schisms have occurred throughout the Roman Church's history, including the Great Schism (1378) split the main faction of Christianity into two divisions, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox and the Old Catholic Church (OCC) in 1889. The Independent Catholic Movement in the United States has followed the general path of the early OCC but has modified the practices to fit our communities. Churches in America naming themselves Old Catholic Churches or Old Catholic Heritage are not in communion with the Old Catholic Churches in Europe or the Roman Catholic Church. There has been a dialogue between the RCC and the Old Catholic Church. However, one of the major sticking points is the ordination of women. Some Eastern Churches are now in full or partial communion with Rome, meaning mutual sacramental sharing.
1. A Story of Wide Diversity
In researching a two-thousand-year-old history, I have had to rely on literature well studied by scholars years ago. G. R. S. Mead's Fragments of a Faith Forgotten, originally published in 1906, details these findings.[1]
The church fathers attempted to organize the Gnostic groups with differing methodologies, but all their efforts were useless. Irenaeus (140-202 CE) and Hippolytus of Rome (170-235 CE) wrote extensively against Gnosticism, and the early church leaders encouraged the destruction of all Gnostic texts. Bishop Irenaeus wrote, in Greek, his Detection and Refutation of Gnosis (known as Adversus haerses or Against Heresies) (circa 180 CE) to this end. He maintained that salvation did not come from gnosis (knowledge) of God despite the teachings of many of the "Christian" groups.
Groups were formed with diversity in their interpretation of Scripture and content. They were also diverse on who God was and who the creator of the earth was. St. Irenaeus wrote that a Christian heritage was the only way to salvation.[2]
Early Jesus' followers slowly grew separated from their Jewish roots. It was not a sudden separation. Centuries elapsed before a complete break manifested.
Mead concludes that Gnostic ideas are complex and morphed from a wide range of thoughts over a protracted period. Mead explains this gradual progression: “All evolution of popular beliefs takes time, and the results arrived at by the general mind only after centuries are invariably anticipated by minds of greater instruction generations before.”[3] Mead points out that Galileo, whose ideas were condemned in his own time, came to be celebrated in later centuries for his general correctness. This general concept of being dishonored in one's era, only to be celebrated in later times, finds scriptural parallels with Jesus's own story. He was rejected in his hometown and country (see Mark 6:4, Luke 4:24, and John 4:44). His words, deeds, and parables have endured through the centuries to become the central beliefs of Christians worldwide undergird the most significant faith tradition on earth.
This morphology of Catholic Christianity was an ongoing, slow, splintering, fragmented process. Much of first-century "history" is based upon legend, conjecture, and myth. Several relevant and reliable names are credited with the developing tradition known as Roman Catholicism. Notable early Christian influencers include Justin Martyr (100-165 CE), Clement of Alexandria (circa 150-211 CE), Origen of Alexandria (185-254 CE), Irenaeus, and Tertullian (155-220 AD). Still, they differed from one another in some respects. Emerging Catholicism was being mixed, matched, dismantled, and contested in the "survival of the fittest" [4]. Irenaeus and Hippolytus of Rome wrote extensively against Gnosticism, and the early church leaders encouraged the destruction of all Gnostic texts.
During the first two hundred years, there were significant disagreements about the Jewishness of Christianity; there were firmly "Jewish" Christians (such as the Ebionites), and there were Pauline extremists, such as Marcion of Sinope (85-160 CE) and the Marcionites who argued the Jewish phase was closed entirely. The stories in the Bible were primarily passed orally from one generation to the next. The New Testament developed slowly. Significant disagreements occurred during the first and second centuries between the Jews, Jewish Christians, and various sects known as Gnostics.
2. A Study of Early Church Tensions and Schisms
Before identifying and shaping the history of schisms and some of the schisms that have shaped the history of the RCC and the emerging family of Catholic denominations, it is helpful to frame what is meant by schism. Defined generally as a "separation, a formal division or separation from a church or religious body[5],” usually schisms occur because one or each of the bodies has come to see the other as deviant or simply too different to remain in the same body together. Disputes over doctrine or organization often brew for years before some triggering incident incites a final mutual pulling apart or one that is not mutual (a larger body expelling a constituent group or a constituent group separating itself from the larger body).
Schisms in the history of Catholicism fall into two primary periods: the earliest period of Late Antiquity (circa late third century to the sixth or seventh century of the common era) and the Late Modern Era from the late nineteenth century forward. In the first period, we can identify groups in the second and third centuries common era who ended up on the doctrine margins from what was still unofficially catholic (a word originating from a Greek word meaning universal). The second set of examples are groups that separated from what became the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) after Emperor Constantine's official recognition in 325 CE.
The schisms from the Roman Catholic Church are rich in tradition, with continuity with Roman Catholicism but the redefinition of certain teachings and practices. This recovered and presented history shows that the contemporary non-Vatican Catholic Churches are not isolated cases but rather part of a continuum of schisms dating to the Second Century CE.
The schism in a religious body follows a similar pattern. It is rarely a sudden incident but a gradual progression as individuals become driven by their convictions, and the schisms within the religious sectors are almost impossible to curtail.
Schism is a division in a religious body in which one or each separate body defines the other as having departed from the true faith. It always involves conflict over what is ultimately true and how that truth should affect human lives.
Yet schism also occurs in a social context in which economic divisions and changes, the process of modernization, and political differences influence how people organize themselves into religious bodies. Those structural conditions provide how separation is finally accomplished.[6]
A similar pattern is seen in the Roman Catholic Church, with divisions dating back to 150 CE. The crisis of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE is an example of a slow (lysis) schism that started as an issue between the new Jewish sect, Christianity, among the older Judaism sects. The final parting saw the Essenes and then the Sadducees destroyed. The remaining rabbinic Judaism and the Pharisees survived.[7] with a Christianity sect, chiefly Gentiles. Thus, Christianity itself was a schism from Judaism.
Fundamental discord from an individual or group at the basic level of theology, philosophy, and even politics precipitates what can lead to a schism within a religious body. A religious schism divides and mutates one spiritual body into two. The primary aim of that type of schism is to morph into an independent body, separate from the original as in religion.
The need to follow a conviction to its inevitable end can be so compelling that nothing, internal pressure, peer pressure, or organizational status stops the idea once set in motion. This is the evolution of schisms in religion.
3. The Gnostic Movement(s)
The Nicaean Creed (Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed) was written at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. The Creed directly contradicted the beliefs of many Gnostic groups in an attempt to discredit the Gnostics. That Creed is fundamentally the same as what is used in many of today's churches, although minor changes have occurred. It was accepted in its present form at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, with the "filioque" phrase added to the Nicene Creed in 589 CE. This Creed defined the fundamental belief that "We believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth…." The filioque changed the wording to “I believe in the Holy Spirit, The Lord, the given of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.” The Eastern churches reject this.
Studying these Gnostic Gospels as they are now known provided a new view of how much strength the Gnostics once had when early Roman Catholicism was being shaped.
What we know today about Gnosticism came predominantly from these discoveries, which are recognized as a testimony to the significance of the culture wars of early Christianity. The Gnostic Gospels show how lost to history such a movement had become and the diversity of thought existing in the early centuries of the church.[8]
More than 50 gnostic sects had begun arising very early in the second century when Christianity was in its infancy. Many of these groups believed that material matter, including the body, was corrupt. Only secret knowledge could free humans from the bondage of the body. Only intimate knowledge could provide salvation.[9]
There was often dissent among the various Gnostic groups as they denounced each other as heretics and hypocrites. The history of the Gnostic movement was essentially eradicated by the Christian tradition that subsequently survived. Gnostics' writings, holy books, rituals, and practices were primarily destroyed or lost. Only the discovery of the Nag Hammadi (1945) revealed much of what we know today about these sects. Nag Hammadi (Naj Hammadi) was located on the west bank of the Nile River in Upper Egypt, on or near the site of the ancient town of Chenoboskion.
The discovery sites of the Nag Hammadi have been questioned. Where are the exact locations of discovery—was it a tomb, ruined house, or a religious place such as a monastery? More questions remain, including how old the codices are and whether they were Christian or Pagan.[10] Nevertheless, most scholars are confident that the finding was near Nag Hammadi in 1945. This is the prevailing discovery story posited by most scholars.
An Arab farmer, peasant Muhammad Ali Al-Samman, made the accidental discovery.[11] Thirteen leather-bound papyrus codices were discovered in a buried urn.[12]
The codices were first sold on the black market; however, eleven and one-half were confiscated and eventually stored in the Cairo Coptic Museum.
Yale scholar Dale Martin describes Gnosticism as a movement beginning in the second century and gaining significance in the third and fourth centuries. He states: “It’s not a church or an institution in the sense that we doubt that you could have walked into the town of Antioch and looked for the Gnostic church.”[13] Mead concludes that Gnostic ideas are complex and morphed from various thoughts and individuals over a protracted period.[14]
Early Jesus' followers slowly grew separated from their Jewish roots. It was not a sudden split; it was centuries before a complete break manifested. There were many teachers, prophets, and religious leaders during this time. All had differing thoughts that intertwined and conflicted with each other. Many of these Gnostic groups had differing beliefs and disagreed with each other during these times.
During this early developmental period, especially the second and third centuries, there were splinter groups such as the Manicheans and hermetic philosophers. Still, none are now seen today as significant as those gathered under the umbrella of Gnosticism. Gnosticism derives from the Greek word gnosis, meaning "knowledge." The early church did not use gnosis, although some writers used the word “gnostikos” (learned or intellectual). A much later poet and philosopher in religion, Henry More (1614-87), first drew upon Gnostics (gnostikoi) as a general rubric for groups with varying beliefs and practices. These groups shared the idea of secret knowledge rather than an open Gospel. They viewed Christ as a lesser divine figure than what emerged after Nicaea's high Christology that became orthodoxy.
Though at one time widely active in early Christianity, the Gnostics were so soundly defeated by the larger Roman church that their existence was lost to history. Their words were lost until the discovery of the Gnostic texts in 1945 in Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt. Those codices or books containing over 50 texts are kept in the repository in the Nag Hammadi Museum in Cairo, Egypt. Scholars think these Coptic manuscripts were written around 350-400 CE based on the bindings used. Still, the true origins of the discourse on those pages are much earlier.[15]
Many of the Gnostics, including Marcionites, believed there were two Gods. As in the Hebrew Scriptures, bad and evil God created the world. A different good God was the one in the New Testament. These movements eventually ventured too far from the mainstream understanding of Jesus Christ. Though they agreed with the idea of the divine source descending into the earth's life directly, these groups nevertheless dissented vigorously from the heavenly view of Jesus as fully holy as the Son of God ordinary in the broader catholicity of the early church. They denied the supreme being would or could live on earth in the flesh.
In contrast to Gnostics, these movements held an exalted view of Jesus. Still, they emphasized the writings of Hermes Trismegistus, an ancient Egyptian, which never gained acceptance in the early church, and these Christian movements were also marginalized by the early church. Nothing remains of these early schisms.
Schisms started in the church as Gnostics broke away from the dominant church methods. In his Detection and Refutation of Gnosis (known as Adversus haerses or Against heresies 180 CE), Bishop Irenaeus wrote to discredit the teachings of the Gnostic Churches. He maintained that salvation did not come from gnosis (knowledge) of God despite the teachings of many of the Gnostic "Christian" groups.[16] The groups were formed with diversity in their interpretation of Scripture and even the content.
Mead could conclude that Gnostic ideas were complex and morphed from a wide range of thoughts and individuals over a protracted period.[17]
The early Jesus' followers slowly grew separate from their Jewish roots. It was not a sudden split. It took centuries for a complete break to manifest. During these times, many teachers, prophets, and religious leaders were there. All had differing thoughts that intertwined and conflicted with each other.
4. The Valentinians
A particularly significant Gnostic movement started with Valentinus. The Valentinian Movement stemmed from the school of gnostic philosophy of Valentinus (100-160 CE). Valentinus started his Gnostic movement in the 2nd Century CE, known today as the Valentinian Movement, which began in Rome and later in Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria.[18]
Valentinus was born in Egypt early in the second century. He was educated in Alexandria and migrated to Rome, where he gradually became a leader and teacher in the Roman church. He expected to become the next Bishop of Rome. When he was passed over, he started his Gnostic movement, known as The Valentinian Movement. Although he was known to be of excellent moral character and his knowledge unquestionable, his movement was of such complexity that one of his great critics, Irenaeus, is to have said, “he never could find two Valentinians who agreed together.”[19] The Valentinian members were free to interpret the writings of Valentinus in their manner. Valentinus used his interpretation of some books in the New Testament involving the sacred Biblical writers to support his cosmological and pantheistic viewpoints. He had a dualistic ideology.
Subsequently, Valentinus's followers changed the Valentinian Movement's practices, which made the Church Fathers write that the doctrine was contradictory to "one another and themselves."[20]
Few remains of Valentinus's writings remain. None of his works have been preserved. Today, we only have the references of the Patristic Fathers in their writings and rare quotes from his writings. Valentinus' followers changed the Valentinian Movement practices, which made the doctrine passed down through the Church Fathers contradictory to "one other and to themselves."[21]
5. Marcion (110-160 CE) and the Marcionites
Marcion of Sinope was a shipowner and merchant from a high social class in Asia Minor at Sinope near the Black Sea. His father was a Christian Bishop, and Marcion was consecrated as a bishop. When he attempted to develop and teach others his doctrines, he was rejected and excommunicated by the Roman Church in 144 CE. He became an important figure in the history of early Christianity.
Marcion’s teachings asserted that there were two Gods, the benevolent God of the Gospels and the malevolent creator God (the God of the Hebrew Scriptures). He believed that the Hebrew Scriptures were “dead.”[22]
Marcion founded his church as an alternative to what he called the "True Church." This church of the Marcionites is seen as successful, and new communities could be found up to the fourth and fifth centuries. Justin (100-165 CE) acknowledged Maricon's success, and Tertullian (160-220 CE) conceded that his ideas "filled the whole world."[23]The Marcion movement and Marcionite religion were major contenders against the "True Church" (Roman) in the second century. The Marcionite churches spread through Italy, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Marcion’s success with his church may have been the lessons from his experience as a merchant. He knew that for a church to survive, it would have to be well organized with a functional hierarchy, a direct but spirited liturgy, and a clear, well-defined doctrine.
Marcion was a significant figure in forming a biblical canon and its contents, and his actions forced other churches, including the Christians, to codify their biblical canons. He is said to have written the first cannon of the church circa 130-140 CE.
His canon contained the Gospel of Marcion (a Marcion-edited Book of Luke). He removed any verses related to the nativity of Christ and any reference to the Hebrew Scriptures. He included ten of Paul’s epistles: Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians; Romans, 1 and 2 Thessalonians; Laodiceans; Colossians; Philippians; and Philemon.
6. Ebionites
Finally, mentioning a significant group now tagged as the Ebionites is good. They are reputed to have a close connection to the Apostle Peter and were followers of the Petrine traditions. They had some early strength, though little knowledge survives beyond stories that they clashed with Pauline's approaches to Christianity. The Ebionites remained focused on being grounded in the original Judaism and only used one Gospel account, Matthew, which emerged from Jerusalem Petrine's history.
This group was among many Christian Jewish sects in the first few centuries after Christ's death. They appeared around the time of the Temple Destruction and survived until sometime in the fourth century. What we know about the Ebionites is by references from the Church Fathers. Many of the Fathers of the Church disagreed about the importance and relevance of the Ebionites’ Holy Book. Ebionites emphasized obeying Jewish Law. Their early literature is thought to be similar to the Gospel of Matthew, but it leaves out references to Jesus’ birth. They rejected Apostle Paul's teachings.
They later developed their holy book, the Gospel of Ebionite. The name Ebionites came from the Hebrew word evyon, meaning 'poor,' and the sect believed being poor was a holy practice. They did not believe in animal sacrifice. They practiced strict vegetarianism and rejected animal sacrifices.
They believed Jesus became the Messiah because he revered and followed the Law. They believed he was the actual profit foretold in Deuteronomy 18:15.
They believed in Adoptionist Christology, maintaining that Jesus was born a man. They denied the divinity of Christ and the virgin birth, thinking instead that Christ was the natural son of Joseph and Mary. He was a leader, a wise man, and a prophet, a manifestation of the Messiah, but he was not born as the Messiah.[24]
They insisted on following the written Jewish Law. They believed that Paul was not an authentic apostle and that James was the true successor to Jesus rather than Peter.
The early Catholic Christians, ultimately, were able to reconcile the discrepancies between the Pauline and the Petrine traditions, and so the Ebionite community did not survive.
The citations presented here represent the works of knowledgeable and respected scholars and deeply held beliefs and convictions. Thus, it sets the table for the main course of this dissertation. Schism, division, and evolution are organic and predictable—not combative in nature—but natural.
Two significant ruptures describe the extensive Christian history today, which is distinct in the family of Catholic denominations. Both are considered today as different branches of Christianity and among the denominations of Catholicism.
1. East and West Split 1054 CE
The eleventh-century breakup between the Eastern and Western branches took a long time. By 330 CE, the Roman Empire, in all practical senses, had already split in two. One spoke Greek and was anchored in the Byzantine world; the other spoke Latin and was centered in Rome—months away in travel time. Though still sharing weighty similarities, geographic, political, and language differences grew more complicated as regional theological differences grew. By the end, both sides were increasingly hostile toward one another, with diminished trust and a true sense of being the same church.
1054 Leo IX, the Bishop of Rome in the West, excommunicated Michael Cerularius (1000-1059 CE), the Bishop of Constantinople in the East. In return, Michael Cerularius also issued a reciprocal excommunication. This exchange has come to be regarded as the definitive break-apart schism, but only some scholars believe the division began in 1054. The process leading to the final break was much more complicated, and no single cause or event can be said to have precipitated it. That schism was not a breakaway so much as a mutual recognition that two far-apart centers of Christianity needed to govern their region of the world in a time when communications took many months if not years. And that formal separation did not lead to significant changes in belief or practice.
2. The Sixteenth Century Protestant Breakaway
In the early modern period, the Protestant breakaway in the sixteenth century produced a significant schism that quickly created many new groups, but none of whom would identify as Catholic. Generally referred to as the Protestant Reformations (notice the plural), this era of schisms was officially set in motion with the guilty outcome of Martin Luther’s heresy trial (1521 CE) at the Diet in Worms, Germany. The Protestant breakaway resulted in more dramatic changes in theology, worship, and ecclesiology than the Eastern Orthodox pull away a half-century earlier.
The Old Catholic Movement was borne out of a Papal decree in 1145 by Blessed Pope Eugene III. Pope Eugene (1080-1153 CE) gave the Cathedral Chapter of the See of Utrecht (Holland) the right to elect its successors when vacancies occurred.[25] The fourth Council of the Lateran confirmed this right to elect successors in 1215. In his book, Old Catholic History, Ministry, Faith, and Mission, Andre' Queen states that this Papal decree caused many problems before and after Vatican I.
After the First Vatican Council in 1870, the Catholics in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland dissented with the Roman Council, which proposed that the Pope, acting alone, was infallible in matters of faith and morals. At this time, many communities formed "Old Catholic" groups, named such because they wanted to remain faithful to practices of the Roman Church before Vatican Council I. These Old Catholic groups eventually joined and formed the Utrecht Union of Churches. The Declaration of Utrecht in 1889, of the Old Catholic Bishops of the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland rejected the Pope's infallibility and the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.
1. Major Stances of The Declaration of Utrecht, 1889[26]
The Declaration of Utrecht, 1889, was a decree to remain faithful to the way of life of Jesus Christ and to stop perpetuating the mistakes of men, which had become part of the Catholic Church. The significant points of the decree were:
1. They adhered to the “Rule of Faith” as put forth by St. Vincent of Lerins and professed the faith of the primitive church;
2. They rejected the decrees of the Council of the Vatican of July 18, 1870, including the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith and morals (1870);
3. They rejected the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (Pius IX, 1854);
4. They denied all the Encyclicals from the Bishops of Rome in any part that contradicted the doctrine of the primitive church;
5. They rejected the decrees of the Council of Trent;
6. They declared their fidelity to the Eucharistic celebration as a sacrificial feast, which allowed Christ’s followers to enter into communion with each other.
2. Overview of Theological Differences
The Old Catholic Church differs from the Roman Catholics in many beliefs and practices and is similar in other beliefs and practices. There is no hierarchy. A Bishop or Presiding Bishop heads the jurisdiction. Clerical celibacy is optional for Old Catholic priests. These priests typically remain at their Parish of ordination. The local Bishop determines the liturgical expression. The liturgy ranges from the current Roman Rite, Tridentine liturgy (in Latin, English, or vernacular), or one of the ancient Divine Liturgies of St. Basil, St. James, or St. John Chrysostom. This freedom for the Bishop and community to "customize" the liturgy allows the church to build a family concern for all members. There is a pastoral sense of caring for the parish members. The Parish welcomes divorced members at the Eucharist. Old Catholics respect the Pope but have no opinion on his infallibility since they are not under his jurisdiction. They follow the apostolic belief that the church general council is infallible, not one person (Pope).
3. Old Catholics in America
American Old Catholic Churches are independent of Rome but not of fundamental Catholicism. American Old Catholic parishes are often small and can offer individuals full participation in the Catholic faith with personal attention to each person's spiritual needs. Old Catholics practiced the traditional religion and continue to do so today without the institutional framework. This allows Old Catholics to offer the sacraments to those who may feel alienated from the church and God.
The first generation of Old Catholic Bishops and Archbishops spent their entire lives dedicated to their concept of an autocephalous, a church not subject to the authority of an external patriarch. The RCC discounted, ridiculed, and targeted OCC clergy. Their Apostolic Succession was often challenged as invalid, illicit, and irregular. They often traveled to have their orders consecrated by different jurisdictions to validate them further. Due to their efforts in many areas, a new generation of Old Catholic Churches in America has persevered.
4. Catechism
The official Catechism used for the Old Catholic Church of the United States includes a preliminary section of questions and answers on various subjects.
First Part: On Faith
This part starts with the Nicene Creed and breaks it down into 12 divisions or articles. The Catechism explains the meaning of articles, why each is in the Creed, and the background of the words. The Ninth Article of the Nicene Creed states, "I believe in one Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church.[27] Then, on page 113, the Catechism states in an explanation of the word Catholic: “A. Because she is not limited to any place, nor time, nor people, but contains true believers of all places, times, and peoples; hence she is universal” and then cites Colossians 1:5-6; 3:10-1.
Second Part: On Hope
This section covers the definition of hope and the need for prayer. The Lord’s Prayer is divided into an invocation and seven petitions. Each is explained or defined in detail. There is also a breakdown and clarification of the nine Beatitudes and the Doctrine of Blessedness sentences. The lists of the corporal and spiritual works of mercy are within the clarification of the Fifth Beatitude.
Third Part: On Charity
The Catechism of the Old Catholic Church talks about the union between faith, love, and charity. They outline their beliefs about the Commandments as written in the Old and New Testaments. They use only Old Testament words, not Hebrew Scriptures' verbiage.
5. Eastern, Russian, Greek, and Old Catholic
Eastern Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, and Greek Orthodox have assisted in consecrating the Old Catholic and American Old Catholic bishops, continuing the origins of Apostolic Succession lines in the churches as they broke away from Rome. The Old Catholics and Eastern Orthodox respect the Roman Pontiff but reject the "universal jurisdiction."[28] of the Pope. They instead believe that the Scripture interpretation is to be found in the church community, not in the hands of one person.
Many of the goals and aspirations of the early American Old Catholic Church were not completed. However, the church survived and has now grown throughout the country. Queen concludes his book by discussing modern technology's positive and negative implications on the American Old Catholic Church. He states that it does not have to be large or have large buildings but can exist and be successful if the church remains faithful to the Word of Christ.
6. Another Telling: Caruso’s History of the Old Catholic Church
Robert W. Caruso has the subtitle of his book “Understanding the Origin, Essence, and Theology of a Church that is Unknown and Misunderstood by Many in North America.”[29]This book was written when Caruso completed his Master of Divinity at United Theological Seminary. Caruso believes that many books on the American Independent Old Catholic church, self-published by clergy, are inaccurate. He believes that the American Old Catholic churches use the title in a general way that does not conform to the Union of Utrecht. The purpose of his book was to present an accurate picture of the Old Catholic Church's history and authentic insight into the North American Old Catholic churches.
Father Bjorn Marcussen, an Old Catholic Theologian, wrote the introduction to Caruso’s book. He summarizes Caruso’s book as an explanation of the different Old Catholic churches. Marcussen believes that this book demonstrates how Old Catholic ecclesiology is built on the principles of the Holy Trinity. Caruso avows the Old Catholic Movement started after the Council of Trent (1545-1563) with churches that disputed the claims by the Roman Catholic Church of the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith and morals. The Old Catholic Church of Holland was the first to oppose the claims of the Roman Church in 1724, followed by the Churches of Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and Czech-Slovakia (1869-70, Vatican I), and then by churches in North America, Great Britain, Philippines, and the Slavic nations (twentieth century).
The Old Catholic movement did not seek to establish a new church. Old Catholicism continues to follow much of the Roman Rite. It keeps the Roman liturgies, the seven sacraments, and the celebration of the Eucharist. Explaining Old Catholicism must include a discussion of conciliarism (the theory that the church's general Council has greater authority than the Pope). The Old Catholic Church movement is based on power distributed by the people, not exclusively by the Pope. Caruso quotes the Sacrosancta, a document the Council of Constance produced, which states, "The whole Christian community was superior to any prelate, however exalted; the Pope was to be a servant of the Church rather than its master."[30]
The Old Catholic Church of Utrecht accepts the Western Christian traditions of the Protestant and Anglican reformers, but it disagrees with some of the theology of those faiths. Utrecht broke ties with Rome but has maintained a catholic and apostolic tradition of the early church from the seven ecumenical councils of the first ten centuries. The Old Catholic Church of Utrecht continued its beliefs and practices in doctrine, which were similar to the Roman church. The infallibility of the Pope and the rights of the local churches continued to obstruct any reunification between Utrecht and Rome. However, Utrecht maintained liturgical practices similar to those of Rome, as defined in the Council of Trent. This schism between Utrecht and Rome remained for almost 150 years since Rome disregarded Utrecht.
In the nineteenth century, local Roman Catholic churches in France, Switzerland, and Germany were beginning to return to thoughts of the conciliar church. Johann Josef Ignaz von Dollinger (1799-1890) and Anton Gunther (1783-1863) began to watch Rome's control of the local churches. They could not accept the infallibility of the Pope. Caruso states they believed the church's nature could only be realized through the whole church's ecumenical councils and the inclusion of all at the local level. Dollinger and Gunther thought the church worked in the conciliar model for the first ten centuries. Rome perceived both men as a threat to the Roman church.
Caruso states that his research showed that Dollinger did not want a new church or to reform the church, but he could not accept the infallibility of the Pope. He believed that the Roman Church was creating a new church. Dollinger wanted to be faithful to the early church, the old Catholic Church, when in the first ten centuries, there was one faith. The issues surrounding furthering the divide between the local churches and Rome (aside from the Pope's infallibility) included the Roman church's hierarchical nature, which had very little guidance from the local churches. In contrast, the local Old Catholic churches were equally governed by the laity, clergy, and Bishop.
Twenty-nine Catholic theologians, including Johann Josef Ignaz von Dollinger and Anton Gunther, met in Munich, Germany, in 1871. The outcome of this conference was the Declaration of the Union of Utrecht in 1889, which included local churches from the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. The first point on the Declaration states clearly that the Union of Utrecht "adhere faithfully to the Rule of Faith laid down by St. Vincent of Lerins professing the faith of the primitive Church by the unanimously accepted decisions of the Ecumenical Councils held in the undivided Church of the first thousand years.”[31]
The second point states the rejection of Vatican I concerning the infallibility of the Pope, which Utrecht adherents believed was against the original ancient church. The document rejects the declaration 1854 of the Immaculate Conception as against the Holy Scriptures. It indicates the Old Catholic refusal to accept the Council of Trent. The Old Catholics agreed with the ancient doctrines of Eucharist and Baptism.
Caruso is critical in his writings about the Old Catholic Church (OCC) in North America and the Independent Old Catholics (of America). Although he states his purpose is not to be judgmental but to "responsibly" tell the history of the Old Catholic Church and Union of Utrecht. He hopes to help American Old Catholics learn to be "church" as he sees the Old Catholic Church as "church." He deems that OCC in North America has redefined the term Old Catholic, which does not conform with the tenets of the Union of Utrecht. He states that the American Old Catholic and the Independent Old Catholic Churches hold two similarities: they are independent and claim a valid apostolic succession. He is critical of these churches and believes they lack specific social and moral values, including the ordination of women. He states that North America has redefined Old Catholic outside of Utrecht. He disapproves that each Old Catholic community is independent of the others, with little contact or relationships between jurisdictions.
The Old Catholic Church of Utrecht values a group of local churches that are self-governing with the faithful, clergy, and bishops. However, they also want to join other local Old Catholic Churches. The liturgy is unique for the church community but still based on the Trinity and the Sacraments. He describes the Old Catholic Church as "unity in diversity."[32] He talks about two sources for Old Catholic history in the United States. The first is the Polish National Catholic Church, and the second is the independent Old Catholic jurisdiction, which he states is led by “wandering bishops.”[33]Caruso claims that the apostolic succession of many of the Independent Old Catholic clerics and Bishops is invalid as they were not legitimately consecrated. He gives specific details on two of the "wandering bishops": Joseph Rene` Vilatte (1854-1929) and Arnold Harris Matthew (1852-1919).
Caruso states the Polish National Catholic Church (PNCC) is the first and last official Old Catholic Church in North America. PNCC severed its ties with the Roman church after a conflict between a Polish Roman priest and Chicago's Archbishop over church property. The issue became that the severed church now did not have a bishop, which was essential to the previous Roman Catholics. The Polish priest appealed to the Union of Utrecht and was consecrated as America's first Old Catholic Bishop. The PNCC left the Union of Utrecht in 2003 when it refused to participate in full communion status with Utrecht.
The Bonn Agreement in 1931 affirms three principles: doctrinal unity, mutual recognition, and independent cooperation.[34]The Bonn Agreement's purpose was to join the Old Catholic churches of Utrecht and the Anglican Churches in communion. The Old Catholics of Utrecht see themselves as a bridge church between the Roman Catholic and the Protestant/Reformed churches of the West. The completed Bonn Agreement took eighty years of debates and talks to be finalized. The Bonn Theses of 1874 allowed the Old Catholics of Utrecht and the Anglicans to focus on the theology of each and come to an agreement (doctrinal unity) in the 1931 Bonn Agreement document.
The 1874 Bonn theses included an initial agreement to recognize the Apostolic Succession line with the Church of England. They also agreed on three levels of ordained ministry: Bishop, presbyter, and deacon, equally ordained and centered in love. This mutual recognition of each church’s teachings of their understanding of "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church" brought the two churches closer together. They found a more shared identity.
In 1930, the Anglican and Old Catholic theologians met once again at the Lambeth Conference. The outcome of this conference was the agreement that the Declaration of Utrecht did not contain anything incompatible with the Church of England's doctrine. At the 1931 Bonn conference, the Anglicans and Old Catholics of the Union of Utrecht agreed on full communion between the churches. The third principle of the Bonn Agreement dealt with Independent Cooperation. Caruso discusses a lecture from the early 1980s by Dr. Lukas Vischer (2008 d.), a Swiss Protestant theologian and ecumenist. Dr. Vischer stated that the Bonn Agreement was "an invitation to the Churches to return to the tradition of the early Church and a criticism of the Churches for having abandoned this tradition by exaggerating the authority of the hierarchy… ."[35]The Independent cooperation of the church is local and diverse, both regional and universal. This must be accomplished by "authentic communion."[36]
Despite Caruso’s criticisms, he believes the 1931 Bonn Agreement is significant as a step toward the Catholic Church of the first five centuries in becoming a current local-universal Christian church in the world.
In the aftermath of Vatican I in the nineteenth century, however, there began an ongoing modern history of movements that, yet still identify as Catholic, were separating from the Roman Church. These groups form part of the family of Catholic denominations in an ongoing history of non-Vatican Catholic Churches separating from the Roman Catholic Church. As such, the number of families of Catholic denominations continues to grow.
Julie Byrne published The Other Catholics: Remaking America’s Largest Religion.[37]
After spending ten years "hanging out" with the Church of Antioch, one of many Independent Catholic Churches in America today. One of the oldest independent groups, it encompasses some of the commonalities. Byrne conducted over forty-six interviews and researched primary and secondary sources and two major archives. She had ten years of field notes. She completed a 58-question online survey with 407 responses. The survey was interesting for what it said and what it did not say from the skipped answers. The comments in the survey sections did not appear in her book.
Byrne used a participation-observation research method (ethnographic research). She participated in the community by attending services, convocations, and conventions. She stated that over the ten years, she changed as her assumptions and ideas of Independent Catholics changed. She said she chose Antioch because it is one of the oldest independent jurisdictions, and they were "willing to be studied."[38]
"Other Catholics" was a term used by the Census Bureau in 1890 when there were enough Independent Catholics to be classified in the census. There were six catholic churches in addition to Rome, one of which was a church that eventually became the Church of Antioch. Non-Roman Catholicism dates back to 1724 in the Netherlands and came to the United States in 1819. Reformers from the Roman Catholic Church from the sixteenth century could take several paths of identity. Some reform movements failed or succeeded within Rome. Some left Rome and became Protestant. Some left Rome and remained Catholic.
Byrne estimates the independents numbered approximately one million in 2016 (she did not explain how she came to that number). She compares the Independents to Quakers at 87,000 and Orthodox at 1.5 million. Although many of the mainstream faiths are small compared to the Roman Catholics, many Protestant faiths are the same size or smaller as the Orthodox, Quakers, or Independents.
Byrne states that Independents are “other” in two ways. First, they are separate from the major church bodies. Second, they play the "other " role as a social field in today's Catholicism.[39]Independents question the Roman Catholic Bishops and the Vatican's stance that women cannot be priests. Women are openly ordained in the Independent Movement. Independents, as "others," question the dogma and test the norms of the dominating churches.
Independent Catholic Churches pay a high cost for their openness and creativity. In most cases, they remain small, are questioned about their status as a real church, and face disparagement. They are charged with being illegitimate, ego-driven, "playing church." Despite the prejudice against the Independents, there is overlap with the Roman Catholic laity. Independent Catholic priests are asked to officiate at sacramental ceremonies for Roman Catholic members who cannot meet the requirements for a Roman sacrament, want sacraments completed outside a Roman Church, or include other banned components.
What Makes a Church Catholic? Any Catholic church outside of Rome has to defend and explain its identity in contrast to Roman Catholicism. Independents modify Catholic traditions but maintain certain rites in common with other Catholic believers. Byrne states that all believe in Apostolic Succession, seven sacraments, devotion to the saints (differing degrees), and the word “Catholic." Nevertheless, any Catholic denomination outside the Roman Catholic has to defend and define its Catholicity. Catholic means universal, but who gets to define universal?
There were non-Roman Catholics in 1607 when the Anglicans settled in Virginia. There were Protestant Episcopal Christians (1789), Greek Orthodox colonists (1768), and other small groups of US Roman and Eastern Catholics who broke with the Roman Catholics. Jay Dolan (1936-2023) wrote in 1985 that there were breaks with the Roman church throughout the nineteenth century, and he called them "independent churches."[40]
Byrne details the crucial role of Joseph Rene Vilatte, who was born in Paris but became a significant player in the American Independent Churches as an adult. He was ordained as a Presbyterian minister but later ordained into the Old Catholic faith in 1885. He became the Bishop of the Old Catholic Church of the Diocese of Wisconsin. Vilatte is considered one of the most significant Catholic bishops in the US independent Catholic beginnings. He died on July 8, 1929.
The history of Antioch is an integral part of Byrne's study. Archbishop Herman Adrian Spruit (1911-1994) had come from Germany at 16 years old. His family had come from non-Roman Catholicism but attended Methodist churches in Germany. After coming to this country, Spruit became a Methodist minister, left his Methodist ministry, and became intrigued with metaphysics. He became acquainted with Ernest Homes and was licensed as a Minister of Religious Science. Spruit became unhappy again and ended with a copy of an Old Catholic Missal. Archbishop Herman Spruit started the Catholic Apostolic Church of Antioch in 1958.
Antioch remained in line with Christian and Catholic tradition by keeping Christ at the heart of the church and practicing the sacraments. However, Archbishop Spruit also included other religious traditions and customs in the church. He believed all who attended Antioch could accept communion. He established open seminary preparation and ordination, including women. Furthermore, ordained priests could change the Mass to adapt it for the laity in the Parish. The church continues today. In 2008, Antioch had 75 clergy and thirty-three chartered ministries.
Archbishop Herman Spruit met and married Meri Spruit. She became an Archbishop, and together they led the Antioch Church as Patriarch and Matriarch of the Church. He died in 1994. Archbishop Meri Spruit passed the leadership of the Antioch Church to Archbishop Richard A. Gundrey in 2004 as the Presiding Bishop.
Byrne sets out a clear example of the prejudice against the Independent Catholics, particularly by the Roman Catholics. She describes the casual relationship between Archbishop Richard Gundrey and Archbishop Michael Sheehan as being friendly on a surface level. However, Sheehan wrote in the archdiocesan newspaper articles that vilified Independent Catholic Churches, saying they do not exist since they are not connected to the Holy Father. He urged the Roman Catholics to stay away from the other churches. There were a series of communications between the two. Sheehan published a list of schismatic churches. (I looked this list up on the Archdiocese of Santa Fe website. The index remained on the website and was revised on September 23, 2019.)
The Church of Antioch split in 2010. The members had conflicts and negative discussions, although Byrne did not detail the issues. The Church of Antioch still exists in 2023 with members who remained with the original church. Other members and Bishops started a new jurisdiction, Ascension Alliance. Other Bishops went to other already established jurisdictions. Byrne reports in her book that the members felt the split to their “cores.”[41]
Left-leaning independents are also a focus of Byrne’s research, and she finishes her book by concluding that the "other" Catholics make room for the people who have been blocked or turned away from the Roman Church. They provide a church home for Catholics who have been called to serve yet have no place to serve in the Roman Church. They keep the succession, sacraments, and saints and identify as Catholic but welcome those who are no longer comfortable or have become outcasts from the Roman Church due to divorce, abortions, or lifestyle. She states that the Independent Catholics practice "sacramental justice—opening the sacraments to all.[42]
The Independent Catholic Church Movement follows from thoughtful, questioning, inquiring persons who demanded a more inclusive, less punishing formula for Divine Catholic Worship. This is not an attempt to dismiss the past or discredit the Roman Catholic Church. Upon the shoulders of the Jewish religion, the Roman Catholic Church, the Gnostics, and the Old Catholic Church, non-Vatican catholic churches have expanded to deepen open and inclusive ideology serving a wider population.
It needs to be made apparent because there are so many independents worldwide. There also are many jurisdictions. I hope that someday we can have more unity. But we all want to progress in our way and time. It will help, however, when the Roman Catholics are willing to accept that there are denominations of Catholicism just as denominations of Protestantism.
Almost all the Independent Catholic Churches (ICC) came out of the Old Catholic Church (OCC) after the OCC went to the United States. The Lines of Succession of ICC and OCC cross in many places along the way. It was interesting for me to find many of the Bishops of my line talked about in the books I read, especially The Other Catholics.
Good Shepherd Independent Catholic Church grew out of the Independent Catholic Church of the West (ICCW), a new jurisdiction. ICCW was the jurisdiction based in Phoenix, Arizona. Fr. Prandani was a former Franciscan monk who missed Catholicism but could not accept the dogma there. He researched and found the ICCW in Arizona. He visited that church and eventually was ordained as a Deacon. He held Mass every morning in his home for months before he was able to rent space. He was later ordained as a Priest. He built a church, and people came. He had a simple sandwich sign on the street and participated in the Pride Fair. That is the place Diane and I found Good Shepherd Independent Catholic Church (GSICC).
St. Michael’s Independent Catholic Church (SMICC) was founded by members of a Roman Catholic Church. This group visited Good Shepherd and established St. Michael’s after that visit.
I was ordained in the ICCW as a Deacon in 2007 and a Priest in 2008. A few years after I was ordained the ICCW separated, and all parishes moved to different jurisdictions. Some of the parishes joined other churches in the Phoenix area. We, as a church, had meetings and looked at three possibilities. We ultimately joined the United Catholic Church after much prayer, phone conversations, meeting with the bishop, and all parish members agreeing that this was the best path for our future.
The three possibilities were:
1. United Catholic Church was founded and incorporated in 1996 in Florida. This was a small jurisdiction. There are few parishes, with most of the clergy serving ministries in prisons, hospice, and the military. Individual parishes have the support of the Presiding Bishop, and of the other Bishops; however, parishes operate independently. This jurisdiction accepted our clergy as they were ordained through our process, with future clergy going through the jurisdictional process.
2. Ecumenical Catholic Church was a larger jurisdiction with more structure and oversight of the parishes. The churches support jurisdiction oversight monetarily. The laity had to complete an extensive application process and be accepted by their Council. The individual clergy had to undergo an extensive application process and be approved individually by their committee. The parishes were very interactive with each other and the jurisdiction.
3. The third choice was to become an independent church without any jurisdiction. We would not have a Bishop or any guidance from any outside body. Our Council and laity would be totally in charge. We could stand alone.
One factor considered that one of our priests was in the process of immigration. The first two choices would not affect his status. The third choice could likely result in him being deported.
Our Lines of Apostolic Succession return to the Old Catholics, but many of the bishops were consecrated in multiple lines. The full Line of Succession is on the UnitedCatholic.org website.
The Road to Grace Trinity Catholic Church vis Damascus
Every story has a beginning. My story is no different. Only the names, players, and places make it different. Of course, it is all mine. I am in the middle of the country, plain stock, no particular religion person. Just a woman from Ottumwa, Iowa, middle of America Protestant.
My Grandparents took me to their local Southern Baptist Church. My grandfather would put me on his shoulders, and I attended Sunday school. Then my family moved to Colorado, away from my grandparents.
There was a Baptist Church bus that picked up my siblings and me for a while. I felt a pull to the Roman Catholic Church when I was in the sixth grade. My friends who were Roman Catholic invited me to Mass. This started my journey to search for a God I understood and could accept. I married a man with a Baptist background in a Baptist Church. My daughter was baptized in a Lutheran Church.
As years went by, I attended a Protestant church, practiced Buddhism, and attended the Roman Catholic Church on occasion. I walked on coals as a non-Christian and practiced as a Pagan. I felt I was an agnostic, and at times, I said I was an atheist.
Ultimately, I felt the nudge back to the Roman Catholic Church. I came out as a lesbian and left my husband. I met a woman who was Roman Catholic and attended Mass with her. She and I ventured a path. Before we broke up, we discussed God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. She asked me who I thought Jesus was. When I was practicing Buddhism, Jesus was a great prophet. Her question brought me back to Jesus. I believe Jesus is the Son of God. I believe in God, the Father and Mother, Jesus, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
This was my St. Paul’s Road to Damascus moment. This was the instant I knew I was a Christian. I got sober on April 16, 1987, to this day, and after practicing Buddhism, walking on hot coals, meditating, and claiming to be agnostic and atheist, I returned to my roots from childhood to Christianity and committed to the Roman Catholic Church. I realized, like Saul, that I was persecuting Jesus if I did not follow my calling back to God.
I was attending a wonderful liberal Roman Catholic Church. I received the Sacrament of Confirmation at Easter 2005.
It was a few years before I felt some of the dogma of the Roman Church. I had the feelings of not feeling “Really Accepted.” But it was and is accurate. I am a woman, a lesbian in a long-term relationship, had a divorce, and did not feel a need for a priest to intervene to forgive my “sins.” I did not fit into that theological tent.
After searching other churches, I found Good Shepherd Independent Catholic Church. It was inviting, inclusive, and sacramental. Later, I founded Grace Trinity Catholic Church, non-Vatican Catholic, to shepherd to those who could not attend or did not want to attend a brick-and-mortar church or wanted a church that was inviting, inclusive, and sacramental. Their mission
Roads twist and turn, get narrow and wide, get wet and icy, bumpy and smooth. Some have unexpected sharp and U-turns. Like Paul on the road to Damascus, my road has had all of those positive and negative routes. But I travel on to God with God.
My Damascus Road has brought me to my call to serve. A Deacon (2007), a priest (2008), a Benedictine Monk (2008), a Pastor (2015), a Founder of Grace Trinity Catholic Church, (2023).
Dan Schutte writes in his song (1981), “Here I am, Lord” and I answer, “I will go, Lord, if you lead me, I will hold your people in my heart.”
Anathematize: Curse, condemn. In the dogmatic canons of all the ecumenical councils recognized by the Catholic Church, the word "anathema" signifies exclusion from the society of the faithful due to heresy.
Androcentric: practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing a masculine point of view at the center of one's worldview, culture, and history, thereby culturally marginalizing femininity. The related adjective is androcentric. The practice of having a worldview, culture, and history in the center is gynocentric.
Autocephalous: Autocephalous church having its own head or chief Bishop, although may be in communion with other Orthodox churches; subordinate to no superior authority; self-governing; "autocephalous" literally means "self-heading."
Conciliarism: The theory of church government that places final ecclesiastical authority in representative church councils instead of in a papacy.
Conciliar: Relating to or proceeding from a council, especially a pastoral one.
Concupiscence (con-cu-pi-sense): an ardent, usually sensual, longing. In Catholic theology, concupiscence is seen as a desire of the lower appetite contrary to reason.
Consubstantiation: The belief that the body and blood of Christ coexist with, in, and under the bread and wine when Jesus' Last Supper is celebrated but does not "transform."
"Devotional Revolution": In the middle and late nineteenth century, the church, not only in Ireland but worldwide, was caught up in a 'devotional revolution.' Popes Pius IX and Leo XIII publicised devotions, increased the status of feast days. The church gave special indulgences, and blessings were given. There were new observances, including the Immaculate Conception, which elevated Mary and the Pope at the same time.[43]
Doctrine and dogma: Doctrine is the teachings in matters of faith and morals. Dogma is the part of doctrine that has been divinely revealed.
Ecumenical: Promoting or fostering Christian unity across denominations (from Late Latin oecumenicus for "general or universal").
Encyclical: According to its etymology, an encyclical is nothing more than a circular letter. In modern times, usage has confined the term almost exclusively to certain papal documents which differ in their technical form from the ordinary style of either Bulls or Briefs and which, in their superscription, are explicitly addressed to the patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops of the Universal Church in communion with the Apostolic See.[44]
Febronianism: A powerful movement within the Roman Catholic Church in Germany, in the latter part of the 18th century directed towards the nationalizing of Catholicism, the restriction of the power of the papacy in favor of that of the episcopate, and the reunion of the dissident churches with Catholic Christendom. It was thus, in its main tendencies, the equivalent of what in France is known as Gallicanism. Friedrich Lauchert describes Febronianism, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, as a politico-ecclesiastical system with an ostensible purpose to facilitate the reconciliation of the Protestant bodies with the Catholic Church by diminishing the power of the Holy See.
Gallican: (/ˈɡaləkən/) adjective () relating to the ancient Church of Gaul or France. (2) of or holding a doctrine (reaching its peak in the 17th century) which asserted the freedom of the Roman Catholic Church in France and elsewhere from the ecclesiastical authority of the papacy. Noun (1) an adherent of the Gallican doctrine.
Heterodox(hetero-dox)-not conforming with accepted or orthodox standards or beliefs.
Imago Dei: Longer definition: The term Imago Dei refers most fundamentally to two things: first, God's own self-actualization through humankind, and second, God's care for humankind. To say that humans are in the image of God is to recognize the special qualities of human nature that allow God to be made manifest in humans.
Interdict: Authoritative prohibition, such as the Pope prohibiting a priest from exercising any functions
Jansenism: A theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace and predestination and thus has been referred to as Catholic Calvinism. The movement originated from the posthumously published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638).
Kyriarchy: In feminist theory, a social system or set of connecting social systems built around domination, oppression, and submission. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza coined the word in 1992 to frame her theory of interconnected, interacting, and self-extending systems of domination and submission, in which a single individual might be oppressed in some relationships and privileged in others. It is an intersectional extension of the idea of patriarchy beyond gender. Kyriarchy encompasses sexism, racism, speciesism, homophobia, classism, economic injustice, colonialism, militarism, ethnocentrism, anthropocentrism, and other forms of dominating hierarchies in which the subordination of one person or group to another is internalized and institutionalized on in seeking political and economic hegemony over an independent nation or extended geographic area without necessarily reducing the subordinate nation or area to the legal status of a colony.
Magisterium: In the Roman Catholic Church , it is the church's authority or office to give authentic interpretation of the Word of God, "whether in its written form or in the form of Tradition."
Oecumenical- promoting or fostering Christian unity throughout the world. of or relating to a movement (ecumenical movement), especially among Protestant groups since the 1800s, aimed at achieving universal Christian unity and church union through international interdenominational.
Patriarchal: of or run by the founding fathers, the patriarchs-rule of the fathers; sanctioning male authority over females and children. May involved religious, economic, social and political processes.
Sacerdotal: Of or relating to priests or a priesthood.
Schism: The definition of a schism is a split of a group into different sections as a result of a difference in beliefs. When members of a church congregation disagree and divide into two separate churches based on their different beliefs, this is an example of a schism.
Sedevacantism: The position, held by some traditionalist Catholics, that the present occupier of the Holy See is not truly Pope due to the mainstream church's espousal of what they see as the heresy of modernism and that, for lack of a valid pope, the See has been vacant since the death of Pope Pius XII in 1958.
Synod: From the Greek for "together is the way," the synodal principle derives from the earliest days of the Christian church as synods became formal places of gathering among church leaders to examine serious problems and work out general policies for the larger church.
Theosis (or Deification): A transformative process aiming to likeness to or union with God, as taught by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches. As a process of transformation, theosis is brought about by the effects of catharsis and theoria. According to Eastern Christian teaching, theosis is very much the purpose of human life. It is considered achievable only through a synergy between human activity and God's uncreated energies
Transubstantiation-Catholic doctrine that the bread and wine at communion is transformed into the blood and body of Christ. The elements do not change in appearance. Only the essence of the elements are transformed into God’s grace.
Tridentine: The Tridentine Mass, also known as the Traditional Latin Mass (TLM) or the Traditional Rite, is the liturgy in the Roman Missal of the Catholic Church published from 1570 to 1962. Tridentine is also used to refer to the Council of Trent.
Ultrajectine: The thought rejects papal infallibility and holds that only the church in the Ecumenical Council may speak infallibility.
Ultramontanism: In the Roman Catholic Church the doctrine of central papal supremacy.
Unigenitus: An apostolic constitution in the form of a papal bull promulgated by Pope Clement XI in 1713 opened the final phase of the Jansenist controversy in France.
Vicar: Representative or deputy of the Bishop.
[1] Julie Byrne, The Other Catholics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 93.
[2] Herbert Thurston, “MLA Citation. Thurston, Herbert. ‘Encyclical.’ The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 13 Oct. 2019 <http://Www.Newadvent.Org/Cathen/05413a.Htm>.,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909), http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05413a.htm.
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes the councils discussed in this document defined by the original Catholic Encyclopedia. Councils are the efforts of the Roman Church from the very beginning whenever the church believed matters of faith, morals, and discipline were in peril. Councils are for self-preservation and self-defense. Provincial councils bring together suffragan bishops.
The Roman Church (under the Pope) has a continuum labeling system for councils to standardize church doctrine and discipline. Councils and Synods are considered equal, and all must meet the following primary conditions to be a lawful assembly.
The conditions are:
(a) A legally convened meeting of
(b) members of the hierarchy for
(c) the purpose of carrying out their judicial and doctrinal functions,
(d) by means of deliberation in common,
(e) resulting in regulations and decrees invested with the authority of the whole assembly.”
The Pope convenes these councils. and when the decrees receive his confirmation, they are binding for all Christians (Roman Catholics).
There were twelve “councils” held between 155-314 CE that are not considered Ecumenical Councils by the Roman Catholic Church.
The first recorded Council was the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem (50 CE), held in Jerusalem. The Council of Jerusalem addressed the strain between the acceptance of the Gentile converts if they didn’t accept Judaic Law and the keeping of Jewish practices, including circumcision and dietary laws.
This meeting is reported in Acts of the Apostles 15:1-32 and Galatians 2:1-14. St. Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss the matters of the Jewish Laws as they applied to the Gentiles who had converted to Christian Jews. Some of the Pharisees insisted that the Gentiles must be circumcised and obey all the Laws of Moses. St. Paul reports in the Letter of Paul to the Galatians 1:7-10 he had been "entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, just as Peter "was entrusted with the gospel for the circumcised." This important event decreed that Gentile Christians did not have to observe all the Judaic Law. It was an important council as it set the stage for both circumcised and uncircumcised under one God. This Council is not recognized as one of the 21 Ecumenical Councils recognized by the Roman Church.
Twelve other pre-ecumenical councils (155 CE -314 CE) involved a metropolitan area or a particular See. They did not include representatives from all the Christian churches. Some of these were considered Synods instead of Councils. They are documented in the second through the second to the fourth centuries. A few were clearly documented, and some were only documented in the writings of church historians or others.
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes 21 Ecumenical Councils, starting with the First Council of Nicaea in 381 CE as the first ecumenical Council and Vatican II as the last ecumenical Council. Some councils, such as Ephesus, have been mainly doctrinal in their work; others, such as Vatican II, have been mainly pastoral. Doctrinal definitions can be promulgated infallibly; although binding, pastoral decisions are not subject to infallibility.
General Synods of the East or the West
General synods are organized of only part of the episcopate, a General Synod of the East or the West. The Synod of Constantinople (381 AD) was originally a General Synod of the East, one-half of the episcopate. This Eastern General Synod consisted of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and other bishops and metropolitans. However, when the West adopted its judgments, the Eastern General Synod became an Ecumenical Council.
Lesser Councils
Patriarchal, National, and Primatial Councils can represent a nation or several provinces under a primate. The Primate of Carthage is an example of a Primatal Council. Provincial councils bring together suffragan bishops (and others appointed to participate) in a providence.
A Diocesan Synod consists of all the clergy and is presided over by the Bishop or Vicar-general. Mixed Synods also occur when both religious and civil dignitaries gather to resolve ecclesiastical and secular matters. Abbesses were sometimes allowed. At times, the clergy and laity vote in separate chambers. Anytime the theological experts and dignitaries (primarily bishops) come together for decisions on emergencies or administrative matters, those are called meetings or assemblies.
Ecumenical Councils
These councils are considered the highest level. The Pope or his emissaries summon eligible cardinals, bishops, and others authorized to vote from all over the world. The Pope presides over the selected assembled but does not need to attend a council for it to be ecumenical and binding on all Roman Catholics. A council is recognized as ecumenical once its works are approved by a pope. The church recognizes the First Council of Nicaea (381 CE) as original through the 21st Council (Vatican II). (See Appendix 1 for details on the 21 Councils accepted by the Roman Church.)
The earliest councils were held in the East, and the reigning popes usually sent legates to represent them. Later, these popes approved the decrees of the councils, thereby verifying that they were ecumenical councils. Aside from the first general gathering of the church's bishops—the Council of Jerusalem, which occurred around A.D. 50 (Acts 15), which is usually not counted as an ecumenical council. There have been 21 ecumenical or general councils of the bishops of the Catholic Church.
All decrees from these Councils must receive the Pope's approval, and when the decrees receive his confirmation, they are binding for all Christians (Roman Catholics). If it fails to receive full approval, it may only be partially approved. This was the case in the Latrocinium, also known as the Robber Synod (449 AD), Synod of Pisa (1409 AD), and, in parts, the Council of Constance (1414-1418 AD).
The Roman Church went through splitting schisms, resulting in Catholic denomination churches that accept different but not all of the 21 Ecumenical Councils.)
complex doctrinal, political, and organizational disputes
Pope Pius IX made declarations in his bull, Ineffabilis Deus (Ineffable God,) on December 8, 1854, causing serious doctrinal differences between the East and the West churches.
The Church of the East accepts the first two councils (First Council of Nicaea and First Council of Constantinople) as ecumenical.
Oriental Orthodox Churches accept the first three councils (the First Council of Nicaea 325, the First Council of Constantinople 381, and the Council of Ephesus 431).
The Eastern Orthodox communion bases its teachings on the first seven councils held from the 4th to the 9th centuries. They accept Scripture and “the seven ecumenical councils”—First Nicaea (325), First Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Second Constantinople (553), Third Constantinople (680), and Second Nicaea (787).
Some Lutheran Churches, Anglican Communion, Reformed Churches, and some Protestant churches, accept the first four ecumenical councils (the First Council of Nicaea 325, the First Council of Constantinople 381, the Council of Ephesus 431, and the Council of Chalcedon) though all are considered subordinate to Scripture.
The Old Catholic Churches of Utrecht accept the first seven ecumenical councils as Truths.
Prior to Vatican II, Pope Pius IX (1846-1878) convened the First Vatican Council (Vatican I) on June 29, 1868. The last Ecumenical Council was the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) which was announced on January 25, 1959, by Pope John XXIII. It was convened in 1962 and lasted until 1965. Many of the Councils prior to Vatican I and II were convened in the Vatican Basilica.
Through the splits and schisms, the Roman Catholic Church has grown into Protestant, Lutheran, and Catholic Churches that are non-Vatican, not under the Pope’s reign. Most consider the Pope a Holy Man and a Leader of the Roman Catholic Church but do not consider him the Patriarch of all churches.
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[1] G.R.S. Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten (Scotland, UK: Anodos Books, 2020).
[2] Harry Gamble, “Marcion and the ‘Canon,’” in The Cambridge History of Christianity, ed. Margaret M. Mitchell and Frances M. Young, Cambridge History of Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 195–213, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.011.
[3] Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten, 61.
[4] Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten, 47.
[5] James D. G. Dunn, The Partings of the Ways Between Christianity and Judaism and Their Significance for the Character of Christianity, v. 1 (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1991).
[6] “Schism: An Overview.”
[7] Dunn, The Partings of the Ways, v. 1, ch. 12.
[8] Jean Doresse, The Secret Books of the Egyptian Gnostics An Introduction to the Recently Discovered Ancient Manuscripts That Rival the Dead Sea Scrolls in Importance (New York, New York: MJF Books, 1986).
[9] Ryan Nelson, “The Beginner’s Guide to the Gnostic Gospels,”September 21, 2018, https://overviewbible.com/gnostic-gospels/.
[10] Doresse, The Secret Books of the Egyptian Gnostics.
[11] Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels` (New York, New York: Vintage Books (Random House, Inc), 1989).
[12] Doresse, The Secret Books of the Egyptian Gnostics.
[13] Martin, “The Gospel of Thomas.”
[14] Doresse, The Secret Books of the Egyptian Gnostics.
[15Dale Ph.D. M.A. Martin M.Phil, MDiv, “Introduction to the New Testament History and Literature RLST 152 - Lecture 8 - The Gospel of Thomas Chapter 1. The Nag Hammadi Codices and Thomasine Literature,” https://www.google.com/search?q=utube+yale+university+book+of+thomas+lecture+by+dale+martin&sxsrf=APq-WBt3oDaK77cK1p3FXd7VFefxWI_btA%3A1644622995535&ei=k_QGYpbdH7nFkPIPy7OM-Aw&ved=0ahUKEwjW8r-L6vj1AhW5IkQIHcsZA88Q4dUDCA4&uact=5&oq=utube+yale+university+book+of+thomas+lecture+by+dale+martin&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAM6BwgjELACECdKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQAFiJGGCPLGgAcAF4AIAB8wGIAZsJkgEFMC42LjGYAQCgAQHAAQE&sclient=gws-wiz.
[16] “Saint Irenaeus Against Heresies Complete” (New Advent, July 25, 201AD), https://archive.org/details/SaintIrenaeusAgainstHeresiesComplete/page/n1/mode/2up.
[17] G.R.S. Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten, 61.
[18] Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels.
[19] G.R.S. Mead, 111.
[20] Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten.
[21]Ibid.
[22 Frances M. Young Margaret M. Mitchell, ed., The Cambridge History of Christianity “Marcion and the 'Canon” Chapter, vol. Volume 1. Origins to Constantine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 195–213.
[23] Giovanni Filoramo and Anthony Alcock, ed, A History of Gnosticism(Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, Inc, 1991).
[24) G.R.S. Mead, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten (Whithorn, Newton Stewart, Dumfries & Galloway g: Anodos Books, 2020).
[25] Andre’ Queen, xi.
[26] Andre’ Queen, 15.
[27].Andre’ Queen, 9.
[28] Andre’ Queen, 163.
[29] Robert W. Caruso, The Old Catholic Church(Berkeley: Apocryphile Press, 2009).
[30] Caruso, 8.
[31] Caruso, 163.
[32] Caruso, 88.
[33] Caruso, 99.
[34] Caruso, 141.
[35] Caruso, 151.
[36] Caruso, 152.
[37] Julie Byrne, The Other Catholics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016).
[38] Byrne, 64.
[39]Byrne, 16.
[40] Julie Byrne, 91.
[41] Julie Byrne, 288.
[42] Julie Byrne, 291.
[43] Julie Byrne, The Other Catholics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 93.
[44] Herbert Thurston, “MLA Citation. Thurston, Herbert. ‘Encyclical.’ The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. [45]New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 13 Oct. 2019 <http://Www.Newadvent.Org/Cathen/05413a.Htm>.,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909), http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05413a.htm.
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